1)
Of the different Progress of Opulence in
different Nations
a)
Of the Natural Progress of Opulence
·
The great
commerce is that between town and country, which is obviously advantageous to
both.
·
The
cultivation of the country must be prior to the increase of the town,
·
though the
town may sometimes be distant from the country from which it derives its
subsistence.
·
This order
of things is favoured by the natural preference of man for agriculture.
·
Cultivators
require the assistance of artificers, who settle together and form a village,
and their employment augments with the improvement of the country.
·
In the
American colonies an artificer who has acquired sufficient stock becomes a
planter instead of manufacturing for distant sale,
·
as in
countries where no uncultivated land can be procured.
·
Manufactures
are naturally preferred to foreign commerce.
·
So the
natural course of things is first agriculture, then manufactures, and finally
foreign commerce.
·
But this
order has been in many respects inverted.
b)
Of the Discouragement of Agriculture in the
ancient State of Europe after the Fall of the Roman Empire
·
After the
fall of the Roman Empire all the land of Western Europe was engrossed, chiefly
by large proprietors.
·
Primogeniture
and entails prevented the great estates being divided.
·
Primogeniture
was introduced because every great landlord was a petty prince.
·
It is now
unreasonable, but supports the pride of family distinctions.
·
Entails
have the same origin,
·
and are
now absurd.
·
Great
proprietors are seldom great improvers.
·
The
occupiers were not likely to improve, as they were slaves attached to the land
and incapable of acquiring property.
·
Slave
labour is the dearest of all.
·
At present
sugar and tobacco can afford slave cultivation, corn cannot.
·
The slaves
were succeeded by metayers,
·
who are
very different in that they can acquire property.
·
But they
could have no interest to employ stock in improvement.
·
Metayers
were followed by farmers, who sometimes find it to their interest to improve
when they have a lease, but leases were long insecure.
·
The
forty-shilling freeholder vote in England contributes to the security of the
farmer.
·
The law of
Scotland is not quite so favourable.
·
In the
rest of Europe the farmer is less secure.
·
Customary
services were vexatious to the farmer,
·
and so
also were compulsory labour on the roads,
·
purveyance,
·
and
tallages.
·
Even under
the best laws the farmer is at a disadvantage in improving,
·
but large
farmers are the principal improvers after small proprietors.
·
The common
prohibition of the export of corn and the restraints on internal trade in
agricultural produce were further discouragements to agriculture.
c)
Of the Rise and Progress of Cities and Towns,
after the Fall of the Roman Empire
·
The
townsmen were not at first favoured more than the countrymen.
·
They were
very nearly of servile condition,
·
but
arrived at liberty much earlier than the country people, acquiring the farm of
their town,
·
first for
a term of years and afterwards in perpetuity,
·
as well as
other privileges equivalent to freedom,
·
and a government
of their own.
·
It seems
strange that sovereigns should have abandoned the prospect of increased revenue
and have erected independent republics,
·
but the
towns were the natural allies of the sovereign against the lords.
·
The
sovereigns who quarrelled most with the barons were the most liberal to the
towns.
·
The city
militia was often able to overpower the neighbouring lords, as in Italy and
Switzerland.
·
In France
and England the cities could not be taxed without their own consent.
·
In
consequence of this greater security of the towns industry flourished and stock
accumulated there earlier than in the country.
·
Cities on
the seacoast or on navigable rivers are not dependent on the neighbouring
country.
·
The cities
of Italy were the first to grow opulent, being centrally situated and benefited
by the crusades.
·
The cities
imported manufactures and luxuries from richer countries, which were paid for
by rude produce.
·
Demand for
such manufactured articles having become considerable, their manufacture was
established in the cities.
·
All
countries have some manufactures.
·
Sometimes
manufactures for distant sale are introduced in imitation of foreign
manufactures.
·
Sometimes
they have grown up out of the coarser home manufactures.
d)
How the Commerce of the Towns contributed to the
Improvement of the Country
·
The rise
of towns benefited the country,
·
because
they affected (1) a ready market for its produce,
·
(2)
because merchants brought land in the country and improved it,
·
and (3)
because order and good government were introduced.
·
Before
foreign commerce and fine manufactures are introduced great proprietors are
surrounded by bands of retainers,
·
and
tenants at will were just as dependent as retainers.
·
The power
of the ancient barons was founded on this.
·
It was
anterior to and independent of the feudal law.
·
It was
moderated by the feudal law,
·
and
undermined by foreign commerce.
·
At present
a rich man maintains in all as many persons as an ancient baron, but he
contributes only a small portion of the maintenance of each person.
·
To meet
their new expenses the great proprietors dismissed their retainers and their
unnecessary tenants, and gave the remaining tenants long leases,
·
thus
making them independent.
·
The great
proprietors thus became insignificant.
·
Old
families are rare in commercial countries.
·
A
revolution was thus insensibly brought about,
·
and
commerce and manufactures became the cause of the improvement of the country.
This order of things is both slow and uncertain compared with the natural
order, as may be shown by the rapid progress of the North American colonies,
·
and the
slow progress of England agriculture in spite of favours accorded to it
·
and the
still slower progress of France,
·
Spain and
Portugal.
·
Italy
alone was improved throughout by foreign commerce and exported manufactures.
·
The
national capital acquired by commerce and manufactures is an uncertain
possession till reliased in the improvement of land.
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